Philosophy
of Religion

Gig Φ Philosophy
(at-a-glance overviews of philosophical concepts)

Published January, 2023 [LAST UPDATED: 2024]

What is it?

Philosophy of Religion is a subdiscipline of Philosophy which explores many of the same questions as theologians (only without making any presumptions about which set of religious doctrines are correct); namely, questions having to do with the many facets of religion / spirituality. As such, philosophers of religion span the range of types of religious belief & adherence to [non]religious traditions (see below).

Common Questions

God(s)

To what extent could / does such a being(s) exist?

What is such a being(s) like?

What does that mean for humanity (i.e., in terms of an immortal soul / afterlife)?

Pluralism

Are all religious claims (even from seemingly contradictory traditions) equally true? 

How can one be justified in maintaining the truth of only one tradition at the exclusion of all others?

Experience

What constitutes a genuine miracle (i.e., a violation of a law of nature)?

Under what conditions ought we trust our / someone else's personal experience of a miracle (or testimony thereafter)?

To what extent do religious claims count as "scientific" / verifiable?

Belief

Under what conditions (if any) is belief in a god(s) rational?

Does rational belief in a god(s) require evidence? If not, why not?

Theologians...

Answer questions using scriptural demonstration specific to the relevant religious doctrine. 

Two Types: Revealed (source = divine revelation) & Natural (source = a priori reasoning)

Philosophers of Religion...

Answer questions using exposition & argumentation (canonically, analytic deductive reasoning). The primary marker being that they assume nothing metaphysically. 

Whereas, theologians may operate similarly, but from a specific set of assumptions.

Terminology & Types of Religious Belief

Theism

Belief in the existence of a god(s). 

Many different types, but typically refers to belief in a personal deity.

A person who has this belief is called a ‘theist’

Agnosticism

Not a belief, rather the withholding of belief. 

Either because they have not been sufficiently convinced yet, or because they think such a thing is beyond our ability to know (i.e., skepticism)

A person who neither accepts, nor rejects [the existence of a god(s) / really anything] is called an ‘agnostic’

Atheism

Belief in the nonexistence of any god(s). 

In other words, the denial of belief in a deity, personal or otherwise.

A person who has this belief is called an ‘atheist’

Monotheism

Belief in a single-unified, personal deity (one who listens to prayers and intervenes in worldly affairs)

Polytheism

Belief in many personal deities 

In between mono- and poly-theism are similarly prefixed: di-/bi-theism (2 non-opposing forces) & tritheism (3 gods)

Deism

Belief in an impersonal deity who lets the world run on its own (one who created the universe, but is not involved in worldly affairs) 

Pantheism

Belief that the universe and the divine are one and the same; a unified whole (i.e., everything is God)

Panentheism

Belief in a deity that is part of, yet conceptually distinct from, the universe (i.e., God is in everything)

Zoroastrianism

Oldest Monotheistic religion (Deistic)

Hinduism

Monotheistic & Polytheistic (Pantheistic)

Buddhism

Atheistic (philosophically)/ Polytheistic (some practices)

Confucianism & Daoism

Atheistic (philosophically) / Polytheistic (Pantheistic)

Abrahamic Religions

Judaism, Christianity, & Islam 

Monotheistic / Deistic

Holy trinity is viewed as Polytheistic by Judaism & Islam

Sikhism

Monotheistic  (Panentheistic)

NOTE: Eastern religions have evolved over time to hold many different views of the divine, and take a more inclusivist approach allowing for what may otherwise appear to be contradictory beliefs.

Cosmological

“Cosmos” = universe

Arguments from effect to a cause, denial of infinite regress

First cause

Arguments that try to show that from the fact that the universe exists, God exists

A posteriori argument (premises based on empirical observation / experience)

Teleological

“Teleos” = function

Arguments from analogy

Intelligent design

Arguments that try to make likely God’s existence from the purposeful design observed in the universe

A posteriori argument (premises based on empirical observation / experience)

Ontological

“Ontos” = meaning

Arguments from definition

Perfect & necessary

Arguments that try to demonstrate God’s existence by logical analysis of the concept of God

A priori argument (premises based on reason alone)

Religious Experience

Inference to the Best Explanation

Assumes that if something is the best explanation for some phenomena, then it must exist.

Arguments that the best explanation for phenomena like miracles is that there is a God

Reformed Epistemology

Focus on whether or not belief in God is rational, despite not having evidence for it.

Some argue religious belief (under specific circumstances) is a type of self-justifying belief; while others argue via analogy that the significant marker of faith is not looking for / at evidence even when it is available.

Pragmatism

Arguments based on the outcome of a cost-benefit analysis

Specifically, that one ought to believe since believing is advantageous 

Similarly provides an argument for the rationality of religious belief without evidence

Typically provided in response to critique of belief without sufficient reason which seems to apply to most other [high stakes] beliefs

The Problem of Evil

Arguments purporting to show that since there is evil; an all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good God must not exist

Namely, because an: 

... prevent unneccessary evil

Two types: Logical (Deductive) & Evidential (Inductive)

Logical Impossibility

Makes God’s existence contradictory to the existence of unnecessary evil

Namely, it is not possible for both evil to exist as well as a being that has the attributes of omnipotent, omnibenevolence, & omniscience

Since we know evil exists (whether moral or not) at least in terms of suffering, then the only other logical conclusion is that such a being could not also exist

Evidentially Improbable

Makes God’s existence unlikely given the amount of unnecessary evil in the world

Namely, that whatever account one might give for why an all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good God would allow evil; there seems to be an excessive amount than what would be necessary to achieve such aims

The intuition here is that this is not the best possible world God could have created, and so probably does not exist