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Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996), fundamentally challenged both Logical Positivism and Popper's Falsificationism. Kuhn argued that science does not move in a steady, linear progression toward "TRUTH". Instead, we should look at scientific practice (i.e., what scientists actually do).
Against Falsificationism: Kuhn asserted that scientists do not spend their time trying to falsify theories; rather, they engage in "puzzle-solving". A failure to solve a puzzle is seen as an indictment of the practitioner, not the underlying theory.
The Structure of Science: Kuhn proposed that science operates in distinct phases rather than as a cumulative process:
Pre-Paradigmatic Science: Isolated practitioners make observations and try out ideas without a cohesive community.
Normal Science: Once ideas are formalized, scientists work within a Paradigm (a normative framework of theories, methods, and ideas). During this period, scientists solve puzzles without questioning the fundamental ideas of their framework.
Anomalies & Crisis: Occasionally, hypotheses aren't confirmed, leading to "anomalies". While small errors are often discarded, significant anomalies can throw the paradigm into a crisis where existing theories are heavily questioned.
Revolution: If a paradigm cannot resolve the anomalies and a new one emerges that can, a "paradigm shift" occurs. Kuhn likened these to political revolutions: they are sudden, unstructured, and rely more on persuasion and conversion than pure, rational debate.
Theory-Ladenness & Incommensurability: Kuhn introduced the idea that paradigms dictate how we interpret data, meaning observation is never entirely value-free or objective (Theory-Ladenness). Furthermore, competing paradigms are "incommensurable", meaning they cannot be easily compared or made compatible because they establish entirely different standards, concepts, and communication methods.