Ethics &
Ethical Theories
(at-a-glance overviews of philosophical concepts)
PUBLISHED September, 2022 [UPDATED: 2024]
The study of morality utilizing philosophical methods.
'Morality' [from Latin "mores"] =
network of social customs and institutions.
Often in the business of conceptualizing
our beliefs about moral judgments (i.e., right / wrong actions & good / bad persons / character / motivations).
Who / what ought to be taken into consideration for assessing moral judgments.
INDIVIDUAL ACTIONS can be assessed as being...
Right = what one ought to do (can be further disaggregated as being...)
Permissible = optional / not obligatory
Neutral = neither good nor bad
Supererogatory = good, but superfluous
Obligatory = required / not permissible to refrain from doing
Wrong = what one ought NOT to do (always obligatory to refrain from doing)
CONSEQUENCES OF ACTIONS can be assessed as being Good / Bad (typically according to something like the Hedonic Calculus)
MORAL AGENTS can be assessed as being Virtuous / Vicious (typically according to something like the Doctrine of the Mean)
*NOTE: How one understands "rightness" / "virtue" will depend on which moral theory they hold
A theory that explains why an action is right / wrong or why a person or a person’s character is good / bad. A moral theory tells us what it is about an action that makes it right, or what it is about a person that makes him or her good.
Conceptualize & model the way things “are” / the way it “is”
Primarily a concern of Psychology to explain why human do the things / hold the values they do, though Feminist Ethics & Ethical Egoism are heavily informed by such accounts.
Conceptualize & model the way things “should" / "ought to" be
This is the focus of most Philosophical attempts to justify why; though, ideally a strong ethical theory will align with what agents are actually capable of doing.
MORAL JUDGEMENTS can be assessed according to...
Relativism / Subjectivism = moral propositions derive their truth relative to minds.
The view that moral standards do not have independent status but are relative to what individuals / cultures believe.
Objectivism = moral propositions derive their truth from something mind-independent (e.g., the divine, rational duty)
The view that there are moral standards / rules that are true or correct for everyone
MORAL PROPOSITIONS can be assessed according to...
Realism = the view that statements refer to entities that exist independently of what one believes
Antirealism = the view that statements do not refer to entities that exist independently of the mind
Determine “rightness” or “wrongness” of individual actions.
I.e., an action being morally praiseworthy / blameworthy depends upon something intrinsic or extrinsic to the act itself.
The rightness of actions is determined not solely by their consequences but partly or entirely by their intrinsic nature
Nonconsequentialist = the good is defined in and of itself (rather than on outcomes)
Right actions are in accordance with the will of the divine (i.e., that God is the creator of morality)
Right actions are in accordance with duty (using the categorical imperative) and motivated by good will
Consequentialist Theories
The rightness of actions depends solely on their consequences or results. The right action is the one that produces the most good...
Utilitarianism (Act /Rule) ... for the greatest #
Egoism ... for the agent (i.e., one's own self-interest)
Determine whether moral agents are “virtuous” or “vicious”.
I.e., a person’s moral character is morally praiseworthy / blameworthy depending on something inherent to the agent’s relationship to others.
Theories of Moral Character
The praiseworthy / blameworthy -ness of a moral agent is determined not solely by their individual actions but partly by their motivations & ability to cultivate certain virtues / relationships over a lifetime
Moral theories that focus on the development of virtuous character over a lifetime
Cultivate relationship building & sustaining emotions (e.g., care). An approach to morality aimed at advancing women’s interests, underscoring their distinctive experiences and characteristics, and advancing the obvious truth that women and men are morally equal
+ Context-dependent Theories
Derive rightness from individual values or social / cultural norms
Derive notions of rightness from descriptive biological and anthropological theories
Test Your Intuitions: Which Would You Choose?
Which Theory Do You Hold & Why?
Imagine you were to explain to a child (who has gotten in trouble at school for taking another student's lunch money) why their action was "wrong" [presuming you think it is - if you don't; you are most likely a short-term egoist or amoralist of some kind]. Your intuitions on which explanation best captures the wrong-making features of the action may give you insight into which ethical theory most aligns with your system of morality.
Stealing is right or wrong in [select 1]: one's mind / culture / context
Stealing is wrong because it violates rationality (Kant) / God's commands (Divine Command)
Stealing is wrong because it can harm you (egoism) and / or the person whose property was taken (utilitarianism)
Stealing is wrong because it cultivates vicious habits (i.e., thief / criminal)
Stealing is wrong because it makes one untrustworthy & harms relationships
Problems with Traditional Ethical Theories
Offer wrong / one-sided view of moral life /development which is embedded within the theories themselves
Action-based theories = concepts are too vague / abstract / broad (assume universality of experience) & NOT representative of the experiences of women / marginalized masculinities
Agent-based theories = traditional virtues reflect hegemonic masculinity & thus exclude groups from being considered "virtuous"
Reason has traditionally been understood, not only as separate from emotion / sentiment, but as antithetical to it. Thus, being deemed rational required a rejection of emotion & those deemed “emotional” were irrational & immoral
Action-based theories = require exclusionary understandings of rationally & impartially (e.g., calculating what will maximize happiness or reasoning to abstract moral principles)
Conceive of epistemic agents / knowers as being individualistic, self-interested, autonomous selves which reflects a more masculine conception of the Self
Not Situated = does not take into account social, political, or economic realities of moral agents
Excludes the role of parenting & other interdependent relationships (private realm) in cultivating moral virtues
